The An Lushan Rebellion: The Bloodbath That Ended A Golden Age

The An Lushan Rebellion (755 – 763 AD) began as a mutiny by the General An Lushan. It then quickly grew into a huge civil war.

Estimates for its death toll vary from between 13 to 36 million.

If the higher estimates are correct, it was one of the most – if not the most – deadly events in human history.

Either way, it caused great upheaval and suffering and was a turning point in the famous Tang dynasty’s (618 – 907) history.

Lines written at the time by China’s greatest poet, Du Fu (712 – 770 AD), make this clear:

万国尽征戍，烽火被冈峦。
积尸草木腥，流血川原丹。
何乡为乐土？

10,000 kingdoms are on military expeditions.
Hilltops are lit by blazing battle fires.
The woods and fields stink of corpses. 
Blood has stained the landscape red. 
What town is safe from fighting? 

– Extract from Du Fu’s ‘Parting of an Aged Couple’ (ca. 759)

Contents

China in the years leading up to the rebellion

The Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD)

The timing of the An Lushan Rebellion is a big reason for its fame.

It took place during the Tang dynasty, which is generally regarded as one of the greatest dynasties in Chinese history.

The dynasty was and is admired for several reasons, including:

• It unified China for the first time in almost four centuries
• It was the largest Chinese empire up until that point 
• It was cosmopolitan and highly cultured.

The High Tang

Moreover, the rebellion didn’t just happen during a great dynasty. 

It happened at the end of greatest era of that dynasty: the High Tang (listed variously as between 650 – 755, or 713 – 755).

During the High Tang, the empire was at its peak of power, territory, economic growth, and cultural achievements. 

Chang’an (today’s Xi’an in north western China), its primary capital city, had a population of around two million people. 

This was likely the largest city in the world at the time. 

And Luoyang (in today’s Henan Province), the empire’s second capital, had a population of about one million.

Many of China’s greatest poets lived during this era, including many of its greatest poets, including: 

• Meng Haoran (ca. 689 – 740)
• Wang Wei (ca. 693 – ca. 761)
• Li Bai (701 – 762)
• Du Fu (712 – 770)

This was also a golden era for China’s most prestigious art: Calligraphy.

The Brilliant Emperor: The Tang Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712 – 756 AD)

The Emperor Xuanzong (real name Li Longji) reigned before and during the An Lushan Rebellion.

(All Chinese emperors were given a royal name, many Tang dynasty ones ended in zong [宗] which means ‘ancestor’ or ‘lineage’.

‘Xuanzong’ can be translated as ‘illustrious ancestor’ or ‘Brilliant Emperor’ – which we will call him from now on.)

He was the great-grandson of the co-founder of Tang dynasty, Taizong (r. 626 – 649 AD),and therefore great-great grandson of its other co-founder, Gaozu (r. 618 – 626 AD).

The first twenty years of the Brilliant Emperor’s reign was seen as a stabilising one after decades of turmoil. 

However, in the nearly two decades leading up to the An Lushan Rebellion (from 736 AD onwards), he became less involved in ruling the empire.

He became more interested in religion, art, gambling, drinking, and a young mistress…

Yang the High Concubine: Yang Guifei (719 – 756 AD)

Yang Guifei’s real name was Yang Yuhuan. ‘Guifei’ means ‘high imperial concubine’. 

(Hereafter, we’ll mostly call her Yang the High Concubine).

She was from an elite family in Yongle (in today’s Shaanxi Province).

Yang the High Concubine was good at dancing and playing music (she is listed as one of the ‘four great beauties of ancient China’).

These were important skills for elite Tang ladies, the origins of Japan’s Geisha culture can even be traced back to here.

She entered into the Tang royal family aged 14 when she married Xuanzong’s son, the Prince of Shou.

Yes, that’s right: she was originally the Brilliant Emperor’s daughter-in-law…

The Brilliant Emperor takes Yang as a High concubine

The Brilliant Emperor was 60 years old when decided he decided to take Yang as a high concubine (a recognised type of secondary wife). 

He is said to have enjoyed watching her bathe in hot springs near the capital. 

He first sent one of his eunuchs to kidnap her. Next, Yang was ordained as a Daoist priestess to try and disguise the scandal. 

She was sent to a convenient place to carry out this new career: one of the Brilliant Emperor’s mansions.

Five years later, in 745, she officially became one of his concubines.

Before long, her political influence grew.

The build-up to the rebellion begins…

Besides the Brilliant Emperor and Yang the High Concubine, the build-up to the An Lushan Rebellion arguably comes down to three other main figures.

Here they are listed in order of importance to the outbreak of the rebellion…

One: The powerful Chief Minister: Li Linfu (683 – 753 AD)

When the Brilliant Emperor became less interested in politics, the Chief Minister Li Linfu was appointed to run the empire.

To keep the Tang dynasties’ political and military power separate, Li ensured that almost all Tang military generals were of non-Han Chinese descent.

(However, one Han Chinese politician did gain military power – Yang Guozhong, see below).

Li was later on named ‘The Brilliant Crook’ by Chinese historians. He was known to be cunning, power-hungry and corrupt.

His frequent purges often involved false accusations, torture and execution.

Li died in 753, two years before the An Lushan Rebellion broke out. 

But many believe his career had weakened the Tang empire, directly leading to its vulnerable state on the eve of the rebellion.

Two: The power-hungry politician: Yang Guozhong (? – 756 AD)

Yang Guozhong (formerly Yang Zhao, but Xuanzong had named him) was a young politician based in Shu (today’s Sichuan Province).

(From here on in, we’ll call him: the Young Politician).

He was related to Yang Guifei – they shared the same great grandfather.

When Li Linfu was alive, the Young Politician began first subtly and then overtly challenging him. 

And when Li died, the Young Politician took over his position and powerbase (in the North West of China, near the capital of Chang’an).

The Young Politician was said to have been a big drinker and gambler. He became friends with the Brilliant Emperor when they gambled together.

And once he took over Li Linfu’s powerbase, he decided to gamble once more. 

He wanted to take on one of Li’s former protégés, a general and politician who (like himself) enjoyed the favour of the Brilliant Emperor and Yang the High Concubine.

However, this general was based in the north east of the empire, where he was in command of the largest concertation of forces in the empire…

Three: The threatened Military General: An Lushan (703 – 757 AD)

This general was, of course, An Lushan (安祿山 [Àn Lùshān]). He was the powerful military commander of the Tang empire before his rebellion against it.

Like nearly all other generals at the time, he was not Han Chinese. 

He seems to have been Turkic (not Turkish!) and Sogdian origin. He was born and grew up in Central Asia, on the fridges of the Tang empire.

He was a short, overweight, and bearded man. He was also illiterate an good at playing the fool for others’ entertainment.

However, he was clearly intelligent. He is said to have spoken six languages, and worked as a go-between for merchants during his youth.

He was greatly liked by the Brilliant Emperor and Yang the High Concubine. It is believed that the latter even officially adopted him (even though he was an adult).

He was even allegedly carried around at a party by Yang the High Concubine’s friends whilst wearing a large silk diaper.

But despite his power and royal connections, An Lushan’s position wasn’t secure any more when his ally and mentor Li Linfu died.

And afterwards, when the newly-powerful Young Politician began to agitate against him, too, An Lushan decided he had to act…

Other causes of the Rebellion

Alongside the main individuals involved, there were several important factors that contributed to the An Lushan Rebellion.

It’s impossible to know for certain how much each contributed, but it’s worth noting them.

For example, the historian Jacques Gernet pointed out how important the lack of high-quality horses was to the Tang’s defences.

Other historians have pointed out that in the decades before the Rebellion the recruitment process for soldiers had changed.

And the ongoing border wars and growing autonomy of generals also left the capital of Chang’an undefended.

China During the Rebellion (756 – 762)

An Lushan rises in revolt (755 AD)

As he had with Li Linfu, the Young Politician began to agitate against An Lushan. He began to circulate rumours and accusations.

In imperial China, this generally meant the accused official would be summoned to the capital, stripped of his power, and then punished (possibly with a death sentence).

An Lushan was a connected and powerful man himself. So, he clearly heard about these rumours and anticipated trouble ahead.

So, fearing this fate, he decided he needed to remove the Young Policitian from power.

On December 16^th 755 AD, An Lushan made his first move…

From his base in Hebei (near today’s Beijing), he marched westward with approximately 150,000 troops.

He had great military success. 

Within several weeks took control of the Grand Canal (an important economic network of canals and rivers), and the secondary capital of the empire Luoyang.

An Lushan declares a new dynasty (756 AD)

An Lushan knew there was no going back. And in early 756 AD, after his initial success, he declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, which he named the Yan dynasty.

Yan was the name of a state based in north eastern China during the Zhou dynasty (1046 – 256 BC). It’s the name of the region where most An Lushan’s power was concentrated.

The Tong Pass incident (756 AD)

The Tong Pass was an area surrounded by mountains and heavily defended by imperial troops. 

It blocked An Lushan’s rebel forces from advancing further west, to the imperial capital in Chang’an.

By holding this area, the imperial government could also threaten the rebels supply chains.

At this point, it looked like the rebellion would soon collapse… 

There was also a temporarily successful military defence of a city by the legendary Tang imperial official, general and calligrapher Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 AD).

However, a series of poor decisions by the imperial leadership (namely, the Young Politician) threw away the strategic control of this area. These included:

• The execution (by the imperial side) of two military men responsible for imperial troops there
• The imperial side’s decision to advance on rebel troops in open ground (rather than stay put).

The imperial troops were defeated. Now, the road to capital in Chang’an was open to the rebels.

The royal court flees the capital (756 AD)

When news of the Tong Pass defeat arrived, the Brilliant Emperor and royal court secretly fled the Capital at night.

They moved so quickly and secretly that many in the court were left behind, including members of the imperial family.

They were heading to Sichuan in the Southwest of China to regroup.

The Young Politician and Yang the High Concubine meet their fates (756 AD)

A few weeks into their retreat from the capital, the soldiers escorting the Brilliant Emperor took command of events.

First, they executed the Young Politician, whom they accused of plotting with Tibetans to attack the dynasty.

Next, they demanded the death of Yang the High Concubine.

The Brilliant Emperor was left without a choice. He had her strangled to death by a Eunuch, then showed the soldiers her lifeless body.

The Brilliant Emperor himself was forced to abdicate a couple of months later. He was replaced by his son, the emperor Suzong (r. 756 – 762).

He spent much of the rest of his life in the royal palace. During this time, he wrote poetry about his mourning and regret.

An Lushan’s rebels sack Chang’an (756 AD)

Meanwhile, the rebels advanced took the capital and looted from it. 

The rebels did not hold Chang’an for long (imperial forces regained it the following year). But the attack was devasting for this large, sophisticated city’s population. 

Father killed by son killed by father killed by son… (756 – 763 AD)

Meanwhile, An Lushan had become both tyrannical and ill. Large boils had appeared all over his body.

His military lucky was running out, too. After taking Chang’an, his forces couldn’t get any further west.

Then one evening, just when things seemed like they couldn’t get any worse, one of his eunuchs entered his tent and stuck a sword into his guts.

An Lushan by now had failing eyesight, and struggled to find his sword in the dark. He died of blood loss soon afterwards.

The Rebellion’s leadership after An Lushan’s death

He was replaced by his son, An Qixun (? – 759 AD), who was likely complicit in his murder.

An Qixun was in turn executed (along with four of his brothers) when An Lushan’s main ally, Shi Siming (703 – 761 AD), took over rebel forces in 759 AD. 

And then Shi himself was murdered and replaced by his son, Shi Chaoyi (? – 763 AD).

What is the An Lushan Rebellion called in Chinese?

In Chinese, the An Lushan Rebellion is called 安史之乱 [Ānshǐzhīluàn], which can be translated roughly to ‘The An and Shi Chaos’.

This is because An Lushan and Shi Siming both led the rebel forces together.

The Rebellion ends (763 AD)

Imperial forces eventually regained control of China. This was not before many destructive battles, sieges and other events took place.

For example, in 763, imperial forces along with Uighur soldiers took back Luoyang for a second time during the Rebellion. 

During their looting of the city, imperial allies slaughtered thousands or tens of thousands of civilians. This included civilians who were set on fire whilst taking refuge in monasteries.

The An Lushan Rebellion’s death toll

There are many claims out there of just how many died in the An Lushan Rebellion. 

In Steven Pinker’s bestselling book The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011), he writes:

The worst atrocity of all time was the An Lushan Revolt and Civil War, an eight-year rebellion during China’s Tang dynasty, that according to censuses, resulted in the loss of two-thirds of the empire’s population, a sixth of the world’s population at the time. 

– Stephen Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature (London: Penguin Books, 2001)

He also gives the figure of 36 million dead, and its 20^th century equivalent as 429 million. 

Pinker’s figure in turn comes from Matthew White, author of Atrocitology: Humanity’s 100 Deadliest Achievements (2011).

However, many historians have pointed out the unreliability of this figure. 

They dispute whether comparing census figures before and after the An Lushan Rebellion is a reliable way to tally its dead.

After all, after the Rebellion, the loss of central control could explain census figure disparities. 

In other words, the reduction in census size does not necessarily correlate with numbers of death.

However, whatever the true figure, the Rebellion clearly did cause death, starvation and untold suffering on a large scale.

Political impact of the rebellion

The imperial forces won the eight-year struggle for control of the Tang empire. But their control of the empire dramatically decreased.

1. Loss of political and cultural unity

The imperial loss of control was so strong that a political and cultural divide appeared.

Nearly a century and a half of efforts to politically unify the empire started to come undone.

This was particularly clear in the divide between the capital, Chang’an, and the north east of China, where the Rebellion had first broke out.

A fu by Du Mu (803 – 852 AD) (not to be confused with Du Fu) highlights these lingering differences:

After the An Lu Shan Rebellion, the three generations of Lu Pei’s ancestors served in the Yan or Chao […] [Whilst living in these places] Master Lu never even heard about Confucius or the Duke of Zhou. He played polo, drank wine, and hunted hares on horseback. Everything was about fighting and warfare.
   [Later on] Master Lu [was told about] how south of the river there was large lands ten times the size of Yan and Chao, how there was a Western capital that housed the Son of Heaven […] how by master Confucian studies and the way of the former kinds, he could […] gain glory and wealth […] and live without fighting or killing.

– Du Mu, ‘Epitaph for Master Lu Pei of Fanyang’

2. The end of territorial expansion

The Tang government could now no longer fully control everything within its own borders, let alone beyond.

Before the rebellion, it had ruled of taken tribute from lands from today’s Korea to Iran.

After the rebellion, this unprecedented expansion and prestige ended.

For 13 years after the rebellion ended, it even had to endure the humiliation of annual Tibetan raids on its capital.

Half a century later, it had lost significant amounts of land and former tributaries (including the Silla in Korea) broke off from the Tang.

3. From cosmopolitan to xenophobic?

Several Western Sinologists have promoted the notion that after the rebellion, Tang China went from a uniquely cosmopolitan empire to a more insular and xenophobic place.

Edward H. Schafer, for example, writes of ‘a love of exotic things’ in the 7th and 8th centuries and ‘distrust or hatred of foreigners’ in the 9th and 10th. (Edward H. Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study in T’ang Exotics, (London: University of California Press, 1985), p.23).

And Jacques Gernet wrote:

Seventh- and eighth-century China […] welcomed everything that came from abroad and exerted a profound effect on most of Asia. But the ebb of Chinese expansion in the middle of the eighth century provoked a reaction of withdrawal into self, of hostility to foreign cultures and a return towards the sources of Chinese tradition as it was before the medieval period.

– Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilisation, trans. J. R. Foster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p274

However, other historians dispute this narrative. For example, Shao-yun Yang, speaks of the ‘myths’ surrounding this aspect of Tang history:

Modern historiography has exaggerated both early Tang cosmopolitanism and late Tang xenophobia to an extent unsupported by the historical evidence; there was neither a golden age of openness, not a precipitous descent into anti-foreign isolationism.

– Shao-yun Yang, Late Tang China and the World, 750-907, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023), p. 2

It’s not difficult to see how such myths have taken root. After all, cultural and economic flourishing has long been associated with openness in the modern West.

4. Aristocratic decline

Before the rebellion, the Tang elite was dominated by aristocratic families, mostly from the North-West of the empire (where the emperors were from).

Many even reinforced their status with detailed genealogies (or lied about ancestry).

After the rebellion, the influence of these groups began to fade.

The imperial examinations grew as a channel to recruit officials as the state. And professional military officials’ personal loyalty became more important to imperial power than clan networks.

5. The Song dynasty’s over-correction?

The Tang dynasty collapsed in 907 AD.

For the next half a century, in a period that would be come known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907 – 960), states competed for power over China.

When the Song unified the empire, its early emperors established a far-reaching and power civil administration. This separated power from the state army. (The first Song emperor, Taizu (927 – 976), had himself been a general before staging a coup).

Thereafter, the civilian (文) Song dynasty stood in stark contrast to its martial (武) predecessors.

This led to all kinds of cultural and political developments, including a Confucian revival (with roots in late Tang dynasty).

However, it also arguably contributed to the Song’s relative vulnerability to its nomadic steppe rivals, including the Liao, Western Xia, Jin dynasty (who took northern China from the Song), and finally the Mongols.

Cultural legacy of the Rebellion

To get a taste of the Rebellion’s impact, we can look to poems and writing from the time.

Here is a section from poem by the great Du Fu that gives insight into both the impact of the Rebellion and how conscription worked:

…有吏夜捉人。
老翁逾墙走，老妇出门看。
吏呼一何怒！妇啼一何苦！
听妇前致词，三男邺诚戍。
一男附书至，二男新战死。
存者且偷生，死者长已矣！
室中更无人…
…That night, a pressgang came for men.
An old man jumped the wall,
while his old wife went through the gate to meet them.
The furious officer cursed.
The old woman cried bitterly.
I heard her approach them and speak:
“Our three sons went off in defence of Yecheng.
Now one has sent a letter home,
telling us that the other two were slain.
He himself yet clings to life,
but the others are gone forever.
At home, there is no one else…”

– Extract from ‘The Pressgang at Shihao Village’ (石壕吏) (759) by Du Fu

And Han Yu (768 – 824 AD), born just five years after the Rebellion, gives us good insight into retrospective views on it. 

In one piece of writing, he highlighted how a weak military had affected the imperial side’s strength:

当是时，弃城而图存者，不可一二数；擅强兵坐而观者，相环也。
At the time [of the An Lu Shan Rebellion], many commanders abandoned their cities for their own survival. Many also preserved their military strength whilst sitting back and watching.

– Han Yu, extract from ‘Postscript to Chief Censor Zhang’s Biography’

Yan Zhenqing’s calligraphic masterpiece

The great official and general Yan Zhenqing also produced perhaps the most famous piece of Tang dynasty calligraphy during the Rebellion: Draft of a Requiem to My Nephew (958 AD).

Bai Juyi’s poem

A couple of generations after the Rebellion, Bai Juyi (772 – 846 AD) helped shape the popular view of the Brilliant Emperor and Yang the Concubine with his poetry.

His famous long poem ‘The Song of Everlasting Regret’ (长恨歌) dramatised and romanticised the pairs relationship, framing it as a tragedy.

It’s opening lines read:

汉皇重色思倾国
The emperor loved beauty, at expense of the nation.

Bai Juyi, from’ Song of Everlasting Regret’