Song Dynasty Calligraphy: China’s Renaissance & Birth of the Literati

The Song dynasty (960 – 1279 AD) is considered by many to be ‘China’s Renaissance’.

Calligraphy was central to this.

A range of brilliant calligraphers emerged, their innovations shaped the art for centuries to come.

Contents

Song dynasty overview

Political unification

When the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD) collapsed, new states violently competed to re-unify its territory.

This half a century later became known as the Five Dynasties (907 – 960 AD) period.

The winning ruler was a general named Zhao Kuangyin. He became the first Song emperor: the Taizu Emperor (r. 960 – 977 AD).

The Song empire was not as large or powerful as the Tang had been. But it still brought about political stability and economic growth.

Renaissance

Many of the Song’s economic and cultural developments shaped China for centuries after.

Civil Confucian principles dominated the state, replacing the more military-minded Tang system.

There were also breakthroughs in technology for paper, ink, brushes, and printing.

All of these factors combined to form what some historians have termed ‘China’s renaissance’.

Calligraphy and its sister arts, poetry and painting, developed significantly.

(Its landscape painting is still considered the greatest of all Chinese landscape painting.)

Song calligraphy overview

Professional & literati

Tang dynasty calligraphy had been a golden era for the art, with dozens of brilliant calligraphers and innovations.

Song dynasty calligraphy built on many of the Tang’s developments and produced new phenomena.

For example, like their Tang predecessors, Song emperors also used calligraphy for ‘soft power’, including by:

• Creating imperial collections
• Commissioning works (including on paper, stelae and in print)
• Practising the art themselves.

This helped establish trends related to particular scripts and calligraphers’ works.

For example, many Stele during the Northern Song period were based on works by the Tang calligrapher Yan Zhenqing.

By the 11th century, new schools of thought related to the literati (文人) emerged, especially around the figure of Su Shi (sell below).

These figures were usually scholar officials who eschewed professional, formal forms of calligraphy in favour of more personal, natural styles.

These were often written as personal letters or colophons (notes added to other calligraphy pieces of paintings).

The literati’s artistic theories often emphasised the ‘spirit-resonance’ of calligraphy over its formal features.

Like professional calligraphers, they developed their abilities by studying and imitating older works.

But this was a means to an end for the literati, who used earlier styles as a departure point – rather than a destination – for their own unique styles.

Song dynasty’s favoured scripts

Song calligraphy is particularly famous for its running script. Many of its greatest exponents often verge on cursive script.

Regular script underwent great development or innovation during the Tang dynasty. But during the Song, less so. The same goes for every subsequent dynasty.

However, many samples of the small-regular script variant from the Song are still highly valued today. 

Prosperity and printing technology contributed to scholarly work. The Song is the source of much of today’s understanding of previous Chinese dynasties.

This aided knowledge and practice of the broad but distinct category of seal script.

Very generally speaking, Song calligraphy is more slender and elongated than the distinctly squat Tang styles.

Earlier calligraphers that influenced the Song dynasty

Two calligraphers from previous dynasties in particular influenced the Song dynasty:

• Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD) of the Jin dynasty. His style was heavily promoted by the Song state but also admired by many calligraphers
• Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785 AD) of the Tang dynasty. Yan was seen as an exemplary Confucian official. His execution in old age for refusal to join a rebel cemented this status.

The styles of these two calligraphers were remarkably different. Wang is clearly the more flamboyant stylist.

However, Yan’s outspoken yet loyal criticisms of government policies was admired by many Song officials.

He represented the moral authority and importance of their class.

The Five dynasties period that had preceded the Song did not produce many famous calligraphers. (However, landscape painting developed greatly during it).

In the Song, the most well-known and admired calligrapher active during the Five dynasties was Yang Ningshi (873 – 954). Su Shi went as far to write of him:

真可谓书之豪杰，不为时世所汩没者
He was a hero of calligraphy, one who was not extinguished by his times.

Su Shi

Calligraphy in the Northern Song (960 – 1127 AD)

The early Song period: Re-establishing calligraphy’s place

During the Tang, calligraphy had been a part of the imperial examinations criteria. This was where many – but not all – government officials were chosen from.

However, in the Song, writing on exam papers was anonymised.

Li Jianzhong (945 – 1013 AD)

The first really well-known early Song calligrapher was the scholar Li Jianzhong (ca. 945 – 1013 AD) (李建中). Only three of his works survive. 

Li had a refined and elegant style, but he was not very influential and many later critics complained that his work was too simple.

Some blamed this on the lack of variety in models he learned from.

Li Zong’e (965 – 1013 AD) 

Li Zong’e (964 – 1012) (李宗谔) worked in the highest educational institution in the Song dynasty for two decades: the Imperial Academy.

As a result, his calligraphy was disseminated across China for officials to base their styles on.

However, despite the deep reach of his work, its influence was soon surpassed.

Ouyang Xiu (1007 – 1072 AD)

Ouyang Xiu (欧阳修) is one of Chinese history’s most famous polymaths. He excelled as a historian, essayist, poet, politician, botanist, and archaeologist.

In Ouyang’s writings, developing trends in artistic thought of the Song dynasty are clear.

For example, he emphasised the essential difference between literati art and art by artisans:

萧条淡泊。此难画之意，画者得之，贤者未必识也… 若乃高下、嚮背、远近、重复，此画工之艺尔，非精鉴者之事也。
Desolation and tranquillity are qualities hard to paint, and if an artist manages to achieve them, viewers are not likely to perceive this…. As for the effects of height and depth, distance and recession, these are only the skills of the artisan painter and not the business of refined connoisseurship.

– Ouyang Xiu

This principle applied to calligraphy as well as painting.

Artisan calligraphers at the Academy of Calligraphy were professionals that worked to order. The literati saw themselves moved to write purely as a form of expression and inner cultivation.

Ouyang did not consider himself a great calligrapher. However, his influence came by way of his writings on the subject.

[…] 明窗净几，笔砚纸墨皆极精良，亦自是人生一乐事。能得此乐者甚稀，其不为外物移其好者 […] 余晚知此趣，恨字体不工，不能到古人佳处。若以为乐，则自给有余。
[…] to have a clean desk beside a bright window with a brush, inkstone, paper and ink, all of high quality, is one of life’s great pleasures. But few men are able to appreciate this pleasure.
[…] It was late in my life that I understood its charm, and unfortunately my calligraphy is not skilful and I shall never reach the heights of the ancient masters. But if it gives me pleasure, that’s enough.

– Ouyang Xiu, ‘Calligraphy Exercises‘

The four great song calligraphers

The four great song calligraphers all lived during the same 100-year period.

They are sometimes ordered in terms of their artistic and intellectual prestige (or the consensus of this prestige):

• Su
• Huang
• Mi
• Cai

However, they are more commonly listed in chronological order:  

1. Cai Xiang (1012 – 1067)

Cai Xiang (蔡襄) was a reform-minded official who had passed his imperial exam aged just 17 or 18.

During his long and varied career, he also made a name for himself as a poet, tea connoisseur and calligrapher.

He was known for his diligent study and attempts at mastering multiple different styles. His work greatly influenced the other three great Song dynasty calligraphers.

2. Su Shi (1037 – 1101)

Su Shi (also known by pen name Su Dongpo) is one of the most famous literary figures in all of Chinese history. 

His official career and poetry established his reputation early in his career.

Su’s career was marred by controversies and exiles. But his literary talents and many interests kept him productive.

His most famous piece of work is the running script (with strong hints of cursive script) classic, Cold Food Observance.

Su is also famous for his contributions to Chinese art theory. His writings helped develop the concept of the Chinese literati for centuries to come. 

In a nutshell, his art philosophy emphasised the interconnected nature of poetry, painting, and calligraphy. And he emphasised scholar art’s:

• Grounding in study of the classics
• Reflection of the artist’s self-cultivation
• Emphasis on expressing ideas and emotions rather than realistic depictions

3. Huang Tingjian (1045 – 1105)

Huang Tingjian was a good friend and artistic disciple of Su Shi. Like Su, he was a scholar-official.

He is widely considered the greatest grass-script calligrapher of the Song dynasty. 

Like Su Shi and Ouyang Xiu, Huang was guided by his sense of being a member of the literati.

He saw calligraphy as a means to achieve an almost zen-like sense of concentration and cultivation. He once remarked:

In studying calligraphy, copying can frequently catch formal likeness, but in general one takes pieces of earlier calligraphy and by looking at them closely one closely reaches a state of complete absorption.

– Huang Tingjian

Huang was also extremely at running script. This can be seen in his early twelfth century running script masterpiece, the Poem on the Hall of Pines and Wind.

4. Mi Fu (1051 – 1107)

Mi Fu was a brilliant, opinionated, and contrarian figure. He was a talented artist, calligrapher, scholar and official.

He was famous for his running script, which deployed a striking range of different strokes. He once remarked:

无垂不缩，无往不收。
Each vertical stroke should end with a contraction, each horizontal one by turning back on itself

– Mi Fi

Like his fellow four greats, Mi Fu articulated his artistic theory on more than one occasion.

One of his well-known remarks emphasised the essential nature of the art, which aligned with the literati concept of calligraphy as a means for the refined to relax:

要之皆一戏， 不当问拙工。
意足我自足， 放笔一戏空。
It’s all just a game.
One shouldn’t question clumsiness or skill. 
If my mind is satisfied, then I am satisfied. 
When I put down the brush, the game is over.

– Mi Fi

A fifth great Song calligrapher? Cai Jing (1047 – 1126)

Cai Jing was labelled one of the ‘Six Bandits’ accused of damaging the Song dynasty shortly before the Jin invasion.

He was a cousin to the first great Song calligrapher, Cai Xiang.

And because the four are often listed by their surnames (which in Chinese comes first), some have speculated that Cai Jing was replaced by Cai Xiang. 

In other words, Cai Jing was seen as so despicable his calligraphy could not be appreciated.

Emperor Huizong (1082 – 1135)

Huizong’s life and art have long battled for attention. He died whilst imprisoned by the Jurchen Jin dynasty shortly after losing half of his empire. 

The consensus has long been that he spent too much time on art and not enough time on politics.

However, he was clearly accomplished in all areas of what the Chinese call ‘the three perfections’:

• Calligraphy
• Painting
• Poetry.

Whilst a decent calligrapher, Huizong’s influence on the art comes more from his patronage and instruction of the Academy of Calligraphy. 

He instructed artisan calligraphers (and artists) to focus on the classics. This pushed the arts towards where the literati were taking it.

(However, he wouldn’t acknowledge the influence of Su Shi, Huang Tingjian and others who had been anti-reforms.)

Calligraphy in the Southern Song (1127 – 1279 AD)

The Southern Song state lasted for 152 years.

Its capital, Lin’an (today’s Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province), was likely the largest city on earth at the time. By the end of the dynasty, its population was over a million.

New artistic and philosophical trends flourished here. In calligraphy, however, progress was minimal.

The influence of Northern Song calligraphy continued, especially during the early years.

However, the high standards of the previous period gradually declined along with calligraphy’s cultural centrality.

Zhao Mengjian (1199 – 1295 AD) complained that his fellow Southern Song calligraphers were not thorough in their practice:

其言云：学唐不如学晋，人皆能言之。[…] 学晋不从唐入，多见其不知量也。仅能欹斜，虽欲媚而不媚，翻成画虎之犬耳。
Some say that focusing on Eastern Jin [calligraphy] [317 – 420 AD] is better than focusing on Tang dynasty and many believe them […] To follow the Eastern Jin without first mastering the Tang [will lead to] misjudging one’s own abilities. Trying to make characters attractive simply by slanting them is akin to trying to draw a tiger and ending up drawing a dog.

– Zhao Mengjian

Emperor Gaozong of Song (1107 – 1187 AD)

Gaozong (r. 1127 – 1162), Huizong’s 9th son, was the first ruler of the Southern Song period.

Like his father, he had a keen interest in calligraphy and painting.

Gaozong’s early style was heavily influenced by the styles of Huang Tingjian and Mi Fu.

According to some accounts, he changed his style because it was too similar to that of the puppet ruler of a rival Jin-controlled state (the emperor Liu Yu (r. 1129 – 38)).

Thereafter, he modelled his style on the Two Wangs.

Fan Chengda (1126 – 1193 AD)

Fan Chengda ranks as one of the greatest officials, poets, and calligraphers of the Southern Song period.

A descendent of great Northern Song calligrapher and official Cai Xiang, Fan passed the imperial exams in 1154.

An envoy to the Jin dynasty in 1170 his brave and steadfast behaviour earned the respect of both his own side and opponents.

He was considered a leading calligrapher during his lifetime. However, only a handful of his works have survived to the present day.

From these, his style reflects the influence of his ancestor Cai Xiang, as well as Huang Tingjian and Yan Zhenqing.

Zhu Xi (1130 – 1200 AD)

Zhu Xi (朱熹) is widely considered to be one of the greatest thinkers in Chinese philosophy.

He helped to revive Confucianism (i.e., Neo-Confucianism) and influenced how it was understood with commentaries.

Although primarily a philosopher, official, and educator, Zhu Xi was interested in calligraphy.

His interest reflected his philosophical leanings: he liked to systemise and analyse the art from an ethical point of view. 

According to Zhu, calligraphers’ work reflected their moral cultivation.

Consequently, Zhu associated the popular slanted style featured in the popular running-cursive style as a reflection of the loss of social morals amongst the Song’s elite.

He recommended writers stick with an upright and orderly standard script, even for personal letters.

Jiang Kui’s Sequel to the ‘Treatise on Calligraphy’ (1208)

Jiang Kui (c. 1155 – c. 1221) was born in Jiangxi Province, but spent most of his life in the economically and culturally vibrant lower Yangzi region. This included in the Southern Song capital, Lin’an (today’s Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province). 

Like many other, he failed the imperial exams after an intensive classical education.

He relied on the patronage of wealthy friends to support his work in calligraphy, music, prose, and poetry.

Jiang was not well-known outside of a few artistic circles during his lifetime.

However, his masterpiece work, Sequel to the ‘Treatise on Calligraphy’, influenced generations of calligraphers. 

Its name pays homage to a Tang dynasty treatise by the Calligrapher Sun Guoting.

Like Sun’s work, the Sequel sets out to both define and promote calligraphy. And along the way, he also gives comments on different calligraphers and styles:

It is commonly believed nowadays that in writing regular script one should strive for evenness and squareness. But this is one of the errors of the Tang dynasty.

– Jiang Kui, Sequel to the ‘Treatise on Calligraphy’ 

Calligraphy in the Jin dynasty (1115 – 1234 AD)

The Jurchen-ruled (a then nomadic steppe people) Jin dynasty was also inhabited by a mostly Chinese population and many Chinese officials.

And many of its rulers themselves practiced Chinese arts and even promoted Confucianism.

Wang Tingyun (1151 – 1202)

Wang Tingyun (王庭筠)is considered one of – if not the – best calligraphers of the Jin Dynasty. 

He was an official that was once entrusted with organising the calligraphy and painting collection of Jin Emperor Zhangzong (1123 – 1189). 

Like most Jin literati, he was influenced by Northern Song calligraphy, especially that of Mi Fu.

Yelü Chucai (1190 – 1244 AD)

Yelü Chucai only briefly worked under the Jin dynasty.

In 1215 he was captured by the Mongols (in today’s Beijing) and put to work for their administration.

His calligraphy is another good example of how Jin dynasty models were based on Northern Song ones. This is unlike the developments in Southern Song calligraphy.

The influence of Huang Tingjian and Mi Fu are particularly clear in Yelü’s sole surviving work.

Calligraphy after the Song dynasty’s fall

In 1234 a previously obscure group wiped out the Jin dynasty, taking over the North of China.

By 1279, they had taken over Southern China, too, effectively ending the Song dynasty.

This group was, of course, the Mongols, led by Khubilai Khan, who had declared the Yuan dynasty (1279 – 1368) several years before.

Yuan dynasty calligraphy initially carried on where the Southern Song had left off.

One of the Yuan’s early acts was bring collections of calligraphy and painting from the fallen Southern Song capital of Hangzhou to Beijing.

Officials, scholars, and collectors could now also travel all over both northern and southern China.

This hadn’t been possible for over a century prior. It stimulated the dynasty’s leading calligraphers, who soon looked back to earlier models, especially the Tang and Jin (266 – 420 AD), for inspiration.

The Yuan lasted less than a century. But throughout the Ming (1368 – 1644) and Qing (1644 – 1911) dynasties, the influence of Song dynasty calligraphy lived on.