In China, calligraphy has long been considered the supreme art.
And its recognised master is Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD) (pronounced ‘wang she-jrrr‘).
He is to Chinese calligraphy what Shakespeare is to poetry and Da Vinci is to painting.
He is often referred to simply as ‘the calligraphy sage’ (书圣).
Contents
- Biography
- Wang's calligraphic style and philosophy
- Preface to The Orchid Pavillion Collection
- Legacy
- Other notes: 4 Anecdotes about Wang Xizhi’s youth
Biography
Family background and early life
Wáng Xīzhī (王羲之), courtesy name Yishao (逸少), was born in Langya (today’s Linyi, Shandong Province) near the end of the Western Jin dynasty (266 AD – 316 AD).
He came from a northern Chinese aristocratic family of officials and army generals. They were connected (by marriage) to the royal family.
His paternal grandfather, Wang Zheng, had served as a Xiangshu lang (尚书郎), a crucial high imperial role in charge of drafting official documents and executing orders.
And his father, Wang Kuang, was the prefect of Huainan (in today’s Anhui Province).
He had suggested the location for the Eastern Jin’s (317 – 420 AD) capital, Jiankang (modern day Nanjing), once the Western Jin state had collapsed.
(Wang Kuang also had a reputation as an excellent calligrapher, particularly of the clerical and running scripts.)
The most famous family members were Wang Xizhi’s paternal uncles: Wang Dao and Wang Dun. They were powerful politicians and military figures who served throughout three Eastern Jin emperors’ reigns.
These were troubled times for the Chinese. The north of China was ruled by non-Han Chinese states.
It forced northern elites, like the Wangs, into the South of China, which had previously been considered less culturally and economically important.
Taught by the best: Wei Shuo
Wang Xizhi was taught by the great calligrapher Wei Shuo (272 AD – 349 AD) and his uncle Wang Yi. Some historians believe Wei may have actually been his aunt.
Later career
Like many others in his family, Wang enjoyed a successful and high-ranking career.
Despite his military titles (below), he was a non-military official. However, he was involved in making decisions on military matters.
One example was his call to defend the Yangtze region rather than go on expeditions in the north.
His positions included:
- Assistant to the Palace Library.
- Guardian General of the Army
- Interior Minister of Kuaiji (today’s Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province)
- General of the Right Army his highest position.
He was married and had several children. His seventh son, Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD), would become a great calligrapher in his own right.
Together, they are often collectively referred to as The ‘Two Wangs’ (二王).
Rivalry with Wang Shu
Some sources claim that Wang’s rivalry with the politician Wang Shu (303 – 368 AD) played a big role in his (Wang Xizhi’s) retirement.
Wang Xizhi is said to have taken a dislike from Wang Shu early on. He allegedly described the latter as morally upright and dull.
At one point, Wang Xizhi is said to have been insulting to Wang Shu on a visit to him.
At another, Wang Shu is said to have visited Wang Xizhi’s vicinity but not called in on him (as was customary for officials).
When Wang Shu became a regional inspector for Yang Province, he discovered improper financial dealings by Wang Xizhi.
Humiliated, Wang Xizhi retired at about the age of 49. His family’s wealth and political power was also declining at this time.
Pledge by parents’ grave
It was around this time he swore by his parents’ grave that he would resign and wrote his short Statement of Pledge:
常依陆贾、班嗣、杨王孙之处世，甚欲希风数子，老夫志愿尽与此也。
– Wang Xizhi, Statement of Pledge
I have often acted in accordance to the teachings of Lu Jia, Ban Si, and Yang Wangsun. I have always wanted to model myself on them. This is my life’s aspiration.
(Lu Jia (240 – 170 BC) was a philosopher and politician who introduced Confucianism to the Han dynasty’s founding emperor.
Ban Si (dates unknown) was a Han dynasty philosopher who abandoned Confucianism asked discovering Daoism.
Yang Wangsun (dates unknown) was an atheist philosopher famous for wanting to be buried naked after his death).
Final years: A Daoist’s retirement
Wang spent the rest of his life living in rural areas near Kuaiji, enjoying hunting, fishing, gathering herbs and regional travel.
We get a glimpse of him from around this time in an account by a contemporary:
When Wang Xizhi passed on his way from Wu to Guiji, he heard that Gu Bijiang had a celebrated garden there. Although he had no previous acquantance with the owner, he went straight to his home. At the time, Gu was entertaining guests at a drinking banquet in the garden, but Wang wandered freely about, pointing out what he liked or disliked, acting as if no one else was around.
– Quoted in China between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties by Mark Edward Lewis (Harvard University Press, 2011), p. 98 -99
He is said to have been a devout Daoist and keen taker of unusual medicines.
One of these was a mineral extraction that he believed would make his face glow and lengthen his lifespan.
Some believe it may have actually contributed to his death aged 58.
Wang’s calligraphic style and philosophy
Wang’s style is known for being both elegant and strong at the same time. It’s clear, natural, and he was was excellent at writing in all calligraphy styles.
He was particularly excellent in regular script, which is the most popular form of official Chinese characters today.
But his running script (sometimes called ‘semi-cursive’) is also highly esteemed, as his clerical script.
Only one likely genuine copy of cursive script survives today. But it’s clear that in earlier times other copies circulated and inspired many others.
There are many examples in his work (or the copies and rubbings we have left of them), where multiple variations of the same character can be found in the same work.
This is easiest to see with common characters like 以 (yǐ), 之 (zhī), 人 (rén), etc.
Wang’s influences
Calligraphy appears to have developed as an artistic pursuit (as opposed to just a practical task) during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AS). The invention of paper during this period 105 AD contributed to this.
Like most practitioners of his day, Wang was greatly influenced by the staus calligraphy represented to the elite.
And he was particularly influenced by the calligraphy of Wei dynasty calligrapher Zhong You (151 – 230 AD) and the master of the earliest version of cursive script, Zhang Zhi (? – 192 AD).
Surviving copies of Wang’s work
A few hundred works by Wang – both verified and unverified – exist today.
Each are copies of originals which have been passed down. No pure originals remain.
In fact, this was likely the already the case by the early Tang dynasty.
In the 640s, Taizong had Chu Suiliang (596 – 658 AD) review the authenticity of and catalogue Wang’s works in the royal collection.
By combining Chu’s ‘List of [Wang] Youjun’s Calligraphy’ with another source, Pietro De Laurentis estimates that during Taizong’s reign there were:
- Standard script: 50 sheets of paper
- Running script: 240 sheets of paper
- Cursive script: 2000 sheets of paper.
But today, the figures stand at approximately:
- Standard script: 4 pieces
- Running script: 63 pieces
- Cursive script: 222 pieces.
The surviving pieces are copies of copies, either copies traced on paper or ink rubbings.
Preface to The Orchid Pavillion Collection
Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection (兰亭集序) (sometimes translated as Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Gathering) is Wang Xizhi’s most famous piece of calligraphy.
The original version’s whereabouts (or existence) is unknown.
The most popular version we have today is a Tang dynasty copy than hangs in the Palace Museum in the Forbidden City, Beijing.
Legacy
Today, Wang is still generally considered the greatest calligrapher to have ever lived.
This status was achieved by both town-down and organically over the centuries.
And the history of his reputation is closely linked to the wider history of Chinese calligraphy itself.
During Wang’s lifetime
Wang was likely already highly regarded as a calligrapher during his lifetime.
This is clear from his role in writing the preface to the Lanting Collection (see below), and from how many of his correspondents preserved his letters.
Part of his status can be attributed to the aristocratic culture of elegant letter and note-writing that emerged during his era. And his renown as a poet as well as a calligrapher (i.e., master of two of ‘the three perfections‘ of the Chinese arts).
The centuries after Wang’s lifetime (361 – 618)
The first known pronouncement of Wang’s paramount status was by Yang Xin (370 – 442), published in 479 (a century after Wang’s death) but written decades earlier:
古今莫二。
– Yang Xin, Capable Calligraphers from Antiquity Onwards (479)
From antiquity to the present day, he [Wang] has no equal.
And Yang’s friend, Huan Xuan (369 – 404), was the first known collector of Wang’s work.
In the following centuries, China remain divided (as it had been during Wang’s lifetime) between competing states in the north and south of China.
Emperors and aristocrats of these states often sought Wang’s work.
One example of the former is the Emperor Ming (r. 465 – 472) of the Liu Song dynasty (420 – 479). He had a committee collect (including via confiscation) and evaluate Wang’s works for his imperial collection.
An example of the latter was the Duke Hui (d. 444), who, lacking such resources, was tricked into buying sophisticated forgeries.
(This would be a common problem for collectors in the following millennia and half).
Tang dynasty (618 – 906)
The Tang dynasty inherited the short-lived Sui dynasty’s (518 – 618) empire, which had itself unified the China for the first time in four centuries.
Wang’s work was highly popular amongst Tang calligraphers and greatly influenced trends in the art, especially early on in the dynasty.
However, new trends that deviated from Wang’s work appeared, too.
The work of Ouyang Xun (557 – 641) is a good example of the distinct square, heavy-stroked Tang style that emerged.
(Ouyang was likely more influenced by the work of Wang Xianzhi than Wang Xizhi – something writers at the time avoided stating because of Taizong’s preference for the latter).
Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626 – 649)
The second Tang emperor, Taizong, famously endorsed and promulgated Wang’s work.
He enthusiastically collected Wang’s works, which he ordered calligraphers to make copies of.
He also wrote entries on Wang for an official history of the Jin dynasty.
And he even gave one of his daughters, Princess Linchuan (624 – 682), the same courtesy name as Wang’s daughter (Mengjiang).
However, Taizong’s enthusiasm was likely at least partly politically motivated.
Although he was from a northern aristocratic family, Wang had spent most of his life in the south of China, so was strongly associated with the literati culture there.
Taizong, a northerner of partial non-Han Chinese descent, appropriated Wang to both:
- Promote a unified culture within the empire (which had been divided between northern and southern lines for centuries)
- Bolster his own association with Han Chinese culture
- Accentuate his personal prestige and charisma as a leader.
It’s even rumoured that the original version of the Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection, gained by theft from its original owner, is buried with Taizong.
Huairen’s collation of Wang’s characters
Huairen (? – ?) was a Buddhist monk who – likely with the help from at least a couple of other monks – painstakingly collated 1,903 of Wang Xizhi’s characters for Taizong.
He even used radicals from different characters to create new characters.
This was all used to create a stele (stone monument) of Taizong and his son’s (Gaozong, r. 631 – 643) prefaces to the Preface to the Sacred Teaching – a translation of a Buddhist text by the monk Xuanzang.
The Stele was erected on January 1st, 673, in the Buddhist Monastery of Expansion of Blessings. (Today, it stands in the Xi’an Forest of Tablets.)
Huairen wanted to promote Buddhism directly to Taizong, who was favourably inclined towards it already, and Gaozong, who was more interested in Daoism (Wang Xizhi’s religion).
The stele helped establish both Wang’s characters and the semi-cursive script as leading forces in Tang calligraphy.
Previously, most formal monuments had featured clerical or regular script.
Art historian Pietro De Laurentis writers:
Not only is it the first and most successful collated inscription in Chinese history, it is also the first and last attempt to combine Buddhist authority (Xuanzong), political power (Taizong and Gaozong), and artistic charm (Wang Xizhi) in one single monument.
Pietro De Laurentis, Protecting the Dharma through Calligraphy in Tang China (Oxon, Routledge, 2021), p. 1
Sun Guoting’s Treatise on Calligraphy (687)
Sun Guoting (ca 646 – ca 691) was a relatively lowly official who probably died young, aged 44.
His Treatise on Calligraphy, which survives today, was a highly influential work of art history and criticism.
It serves as a great example of how organic appreciation of Wang existed alongside top-down promotion of his work. (Although it must be noted that there are echoes of Taizong’s Jin History entries praise of Wang to be found in it).
Wang Xizhi’s calligraphy has been extensively praised and studied by every generation. It can serve as a model to help students find their own way, for it not only integrates the best of the past and present but also shows deep feeling and harmony… His works alone have stood the test of time. Does this not show their power?
– Sun Guoting, Treatise on Calligraphy
The An Lushan Rebellion (755 – 763)
The An Lushan Rebellion brought an end to what is often referred to as ‘the High Tang period’ (the Tang’s height of political and cultural strength).
The sitting emperor fled the capital, which was ransacked by rebels soon after. And the courts authority and influence – and the imperial collection – were greatly diminished.
Five dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (906 – 960)
After the Tang dynasty collapsed, calligraphers kept the art alive across several short-lived and competing states.
Calligraphy collections, were often taken over by victorious armies. Original works were further diminished.
The era’s most famous calligrapher, Yang Ningshi (873 – 954), incorporated Wang’s style (especially in his elegant brushwork) alongside classic Tang styles such as Yan Zhenqing (709 – 785) and Liu Gongquan (778 – 865).
Song dynasty (960 – 1279)
Northern Song period (960 – 1127)
Song dynasty calligraphy was heavily influenced by Wang.
Like his Tang dynasty namesake, the second Song emperor, Taizong (976 – 997), collected Wang’s works and commissioned copies of it.
The literati also studied and praised Wang. And like him, they favoured calligraphy in personal formats, such as letters and colophons using running script.
But a trend towards elevating the character and style of the Tang dynasty scholar-official Yan Zhenqing emerged amongst them.
Yan would have in fact seen himself as part of the Wang tradition. However, his distinctly upright, robust style was markedly different to Wang’s elegant, elongated one.
This gravitation away from Wang’s style and towards Yan’s held implicit political and cultural connotations.
There was a sense of the distinction between the declining aristocratic elite (which Wang represented) and the rising Confucian scholar-official class (that Yan embodied).
Perhaps the boldest statement of a break from the Wang tradition came from Mi Fu (1051 – 1107). Mi had already favoured the work of Wang Xianzhi over Wang Xizhi before late in life declaring that he had:
一洗二王恶札
– Mi Fu, Hai Yue’s Famous Sayings (海岳名言)
Made a clean break with Two Wangs’ damned letters.
Southern Song period (1127 – 1279)
By the beginning of the Southern Song period, the ‘classical tradition’ was already firmly associated with the Two Wangs.
The trend was now for a further elaboration on the alternative: a path of self-expression laid down by the greats of Northern Song calligraphy.
Despite this, the emperor Gaozong (r. 1129 – 1162) continued to promote Wang’s work as the standard for the imperially-sponsored Academy of Calligraphy.
And many in the literati still had high praise for Wang. For example, whilst writing about cursive script, Jiang Kui (ca. 1155 – 1221) remarked:
Of the characters written by Wang Xizhi, the most frequent are 羲之 [Xizhi], 當 [‘ought’], 得 [‘get’], and 慰 [‘comfort/soothe’]. Each occurs several times, and yet they are both never written the same and never dissimilar. One can say that Wang Xizhi was able to ‘follow the desires of his heart without breaking any rule’.
– Jiang Kui, Sequel to the ‘Treatise on Calligraphy’ (1208)
(The final remark is a quote from the Analects: Confucius said: “At fifteen I set my mind upon learning. At thirty, I took my stand. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I knew the will of heaven. At sixty, my ear was attuned. At seventy, I follow all the desires of my heart without breaking any rule.” (Analects, 2.4))
Yuan dynasty (1271 – 1368)
When the Mongols took over the whole of China, one of their first actions was to consolidate and transfer the Southern Song’s imperial art collections to their capital in Dadu (near today’s Beijing).
This was where the dynasty’s greatest calligrapher, Zhao Mengfu (1254 – 1322 AD), likely came into contact with many masterpieces for the first time.
Zhao’s deep study of calligraphy (and painting) led him to eschewing the Southern Song’s deviation from the classical tradition.
He studied Wang’s work and synthesised many aspects of it into his own. Thanks to his influence, other calligraphers of the era also gravitated back towards Wang as a model to emulate.
Ming dynasty (1386 – 1644)
During the native Chinese-ruled Ming dynasty, state-endorsed trends in calligraphy did exist. But they did not promote of Wang’s style and works.
Early in the dynasty, for example, a Chancellory style of standard script was enforced from above.
This stolid, uniform style left little room for innovation.
And calligraphers had good reason to avoid deviation from their instructions, especially after so many calligraphers had been amongst the victims of the first Ming emperors violent purges. (See the example of Rao Jie (ca. 1300 – 1367), for example).
This stifling control waned as the decades passed.
Meanwhile, Wang’s status was kept alive in regional centres across the empire. But it wasn’t until Dong Qichang (1555 – 1636), one of the era’s greatest calligraphers, that he came fully back into vogue.
Dong famously summarised Jin calligraphy (which in practice largely meant the work of the Two Wangs) as typified by its resonance (韵).
Qing dynasty (1644 – 1911)
Calligraphy once again became an important part of state propaganda during the Manchu-ruled Qing dynasty.
Many of the Manchu emperors were genuine fans of calligraphy.
Early on, the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662 – 1722) promoted the style of Dong Qichang, considered a direct part of the Wang lineage. It dominated as a semi-official preferred way to write official documents.
His grandson, the Qianlong emperor (1736 – 1796), built up the largest imperial collection ever made.
Qianlong named his private studio The Hall of the Three Rarities because it housed works by Wang Xizhi, Wang Xianzhi, and Wang Xun (350 – 401) (not a relative of the Two Wangs).
And, a keen practitioner himself, he even claimed his own work to be the latest manifestation of the Wang lineage.
20th Century – present
After the Qing dynasty fell in 1911, Chinese culture immediately underwent many significant changes.
Calligraphy continues to be practiced and studied.
The writer Lu Xun (1881 – 1936), for example, was an avid collector of ancient ink rubbings. Interestingly, despite being from the same town that Wang spent most of his life (Shaoxing, in Zhejiang Province), Lu never directly mentioned Wang.
(Lu’s younger brother, Zhou Jianren, later recalled the bankrupt family having to sell a copy of the Orchid Pavillion in 1919.)
Communist leaders Mao Zedong (1893 – 1976) and Zhou Enlai (1889 – 1976) were avid calligraphers. (Zhou was also from Shaoxing). The former’s favourite calligraphers were the Two Wangs and Sun Gouting and Huaisu (737 – 799 AD).
But this didn’t stop denigration of Wang in state-controlled press. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 – 1976), articles were published criticising worship of Wang’s work.
However, since the end of this period, Wang has returned to the place he has occupied for over 1,500 years in China: as the greatest calligrapher that ever lived.
Other notes: 4 Anecdotes about Wang Xizhi’s youth
There are many apocryphal stories and anecdotes about historical figures in Chinese history. Wang is no exception.
Some might have elements of truth in them. Others exist for the moral lesson (or idiom) they deliver.
1. Beginning calligraphy
It’s said that by the time he was a seven-year-old, Wang Xizhi he could already write well. However, he hadn’t yet formally begun training in calligraphy.
When he was 12, he began sneaking into his father’s empty bedroom. His father discovered this and questioned him on it.
He soon found out that his son had discovered an article on calligraphy there.
Wang’s father told him that he could have the article and study calligraphy properly when he was old enough to fully understand it.
Wang then pleaded with his father to start sooner, saying he was worried he would stifle his talent otherwise. His father accepted, and the boy began studying.
2. Eating a calf’s heart
One story has it that when Wang was thirteen, he met the famous scholar Zhou Jin at a large banquet.
When he was offered a prestigious delicacy – a roasted calf’s heart. He ate it calmly as the guests watched on in silence.
His composure impressed everyone in attendance.
The fact that he was offered the delicacy is significant. Zhou must have sensed something special about the young man.
And Wang’s smooth handling of the task suggests the composure and focus he would utilise for calligraphy.
3. A good son-in-law
As he grew older, Wang Xizhi was said to become an upright, eloquent and cool-headed young man.
One story has is that an imperial minister, Xi Jian, came to visit Wang’s uncle, Wang Dao, in order to select a son-in-law from the latter’s younger relatives.
After the young Wang boys had been gathered and told of what was happening, nearly all of them suddenly looked solemn and focused.
However, Wang Xizhi simply stayed where he was on an eastern-facing couch, bare-chested and eating snacks.
The minister, impressed with this sign of composure, independence, and authenticity, so he chose Wang Xizhi to be his son-in-law.
Today, the Chinese has an idiom that word-for-word translates as ‘eastern bed quick son-in-law’ (东床快婿 [dōngchuāng kuài xù], often shortened to just ‘eastern bed’), which essentially means ‘good son-in-law’.
4. The stained desk
One story has it that Emperor Cheng of the Jin (r. 321 – 342 AD) was needed to write some characters on wooden boards at a temple.
Wang Xizhi had previously written on the same boards, so a carpenter was asked to sand them down.
The carpenter eventually had to use a knife to remove the ink. Wang had written his characters with such energy and power that the ink had deeply stained the wood.