Many associate the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279 – 1368) with violent invasion and tyranny.
So, it can be surprising to learn that Chinese culture flourished during it.
Even the famous blue and white porcelain many associate with China comes from this period.
(Many mistakenly think it’s from the Chinese ruled Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644) that followed.)
And despite how short-lived it the Yuan was (just under a century), China’s highest art, calligraphy, flourished during it.
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Yuan dynasty calligraphy overview
The Yuan dynasty helped unify Chinese (and non-Chinese) calligraphers’ worlds.
(The same process occurred in Yuan dynasty landscape painting.
Both arts simultaneously grew closer together, especially with literati painters’ preference for calligraphic brush strokes and the increasing practice of adding calligraphy directly to paintings.)
The work of previous dynasties could be viewed in-person and via printed model calligraphy books. And new trends could spread across the empire.
Song dynasty (960 – 1279 AD) calligraphy had been split over a century earlier by the dynasty’s division between:
- The Jin dynasty (1115 – 1234). This had largely stayed closer to Northern Song (960 – 1127) trends, but lacked deep innovation.
- Southern Song (1127 – 1279). This era produced several significant calligraphers. However, the prevailing trends tended towards self-expression via idiosyncratic styles that didn’t produce the breakthroughs of earlier times.
(A third state, the Khitan-ruled Liao dynasty (916 – 1125), also practiced the art, but did not directly contribute significant works or innovations).
Overall, Yuan trends led to a re-emphasis on Jin (266 – 420 AD) (the earlier, Han Chinese state) and Tang dynasty (618 – 907 AD) calligraphy.
Pre-Yuan dynasty (1206 – 1271)
The Mongols famously rose from nomadic obscurity to rulers of the world’s largest ever continuous land empire in a short time.
Temüjin (Ghenghis Khan) (ca. 1162 – 1227) unified the Mongols in 1206. From their homelands on the steppe south of today’s Lake Baikal, they began rapidly conquering territory.
Ghenghis died in 1227, but the increasingly well-honed military machine continued on under his son Ögedei (1186 – 1241) and then grandson Kubilai (1215 – 1294) (with a few other relatives and regents in between).
By 1234, they had defeated the Manchu-ruled Jin dynasty (1115 – 1234) which had ruled northern China for over a century.
The Jin’s population and administration had many ethnic Chinese. And many elites of the other important groups had a Chinese education.
By incorporating the Jin lands and administrators, the Mongols took an important step towards the Sinification of their rulers and empire.
Before they turned to a taxation system based on census-taking, the Mongols had relied more on tribute and trade.
This was a natural approach, given their nomadic, fast-moving nature (something which early on gave them an advantage in warfare over settled, agricultural Chinese).
Yelű Chucai (1190 – 1244)
One example is the famous Khitan official Yelü Chucai (耶律楚材).
After working for the Jin, he joined the Mongols, where he deeply influenced their administration.
He is said to have helped save many populations from being massacred by the Mongols by arguing that taxpayers were more productive when alive.
The striking, strong characters of his calligraphy look almost tailor-made to reflect the nature of early Mongol rule.
In fact, Yelü was – like many of his former Jin contemporaries – deeply influenced by Su Shi (1037 – 1101) and Huang Tingjian (1045 – 1105).
His powerful, sharp characters are clear descendants of the work of those two great Northern Song calligraphers.
The Yuan dynasty and a new capital are declared
In 1271, Khubilai declared a Chinese dynastic name: The Great Yuan dynasty (大元) (Yuan means ‘origin’ or ‘prime’). This came from the Confucian classic, The Book of Changes.
The following year, in 1272, the Yuan founded its new capital, Dadu (‘great city’). This was on the spot where Beijing stands today.
Beijing would go on to remain the capital of Chinese dynasties and republics for most of the following centuries (barring brief breaks during the early Ming dynasty and Republic of China).
Many decisions Khubilai made were advised and overseen by his most trusted Chinese advisor, the Buddhist monk Zicong (Liu Bingzhong) (1216 – 1274).
Early Yuan dynasty (ca. 1271 – 1322)
Southern Song (1127 – 1279) is defeated
The Mongols took capital of the Chinese-ruled Southern Song dynasty capital, Lin’an (today’s Hangzhou) in 1276.
The royal Song collection of calligraphy (and painting) was almost immediately transferred to Dadu, where it was combined with existing works that had been captured from the Jin.
The works were catalogues and made available to Chinese officials to view.
In other words, the half century of working with Chinese administrators and advisors had led the Mongols to respect and protect China’s most prestigious artform.
Song resistance continued, by the dynasty was defeated in 1279 when the final Song emperor, 6-year-old Emperor Bing (r. 1278 – 1279 AD) died.
(Bing was killed when his advisor purposely threw them both to their deaths off a cliff.)
Withdrawing officials and suspended examinations
Many potential Chinese officials withdrew from public life after the Mongol take over.
This was largely out of a Confucian sense of loyalty to the fallen regime (resistance would continue throughout the near century of Mongol rule).
It didn’t help that the Mongols suspended the imperial examinations for a record 34 years, previously the main channel for recruiting the Chinese empire.
Zhao Mengfu (1254 – 1322)
Zhao Mengfu (赵孟頫) a relative of the Song royal family, was only 24 when the Mongols took over China.
Like many other officials (Zhao had a hereditary rank), he returned to his home town and lied low, spending his time painting and practicing calligraphy.
However, in 1268, when Zhao was 32, he was recruited into the Yuan government. This gave him access to calligraphy across the empire.
Before long, Zhao established himself as the leading calligrapher of his day (and, in fact, the entire Yuan dynasty).
Zhao systemically studied past calligraphy. This eventually brought him back to the work of Wang Xizhi (303 – 361 AD), whose style Zhao strived to emulate.
In 1301, he even obtained the famous Dingwu edition of Wang’s masterpiece, Preface to the Orchard Pavallion.
Zhao mastered all styles. His distinct regular script, ‘Zhao style [regular script]’ (赵体), is still one of the most commonly used forms of the script (even though it does have – controlled – elements of running script in it).
Overall, his smooth, elegant and highly controlled brushwork demonstrated his mastering of both knowledge and technique.
His influence on the dynasty’s other calligraphers was enormous.
Guan Daosheng (1264 – 1319)
Guan Daosheng (管道昇) was Zhao’s second wife. Like Zhao, she was also an extremely talented calligrapher (and painter).
Together they had a son, Zhao Yong (1289 – 1369), who was also a talented calligrapher.
Guan was particularly skilful at small-standard and running scripts.
Whilst her style resembled her husband’s, especially in the flowing turning points of strokes, it was also unique from it. She had both a graceful and controlled hand.
Khubilai Khan is said to have praised her talent.
And Ayurbarwada Khan (the Renzong Emperor) (r. 1311 – 1320) praised the Zhao-Guan family as a model family and ordered collections of their calligraphy to be preserved for future generations.
Mid-Yuan dynasty (ca. 1307 – 1333)
The Mongol Yuan emperors seemed to undergo a steady process of Sinification with each generation.
(A similar phenomenon occurred with the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644 – 1911) rulers several centuries later.)
However, they retained core aspects of their own political culture, such as intense competition over succession, which led to several crises. Between 1307 and 1333, there were 11 changes of emperor.
Early Yuan society was also relatively prosperous. However, as time went on, the dynasty began to experience other challenges, including famines, natural disasters, and rebellions.
The Hall of the Stars of Literature Academy (奎章阁)
The Hall of the Stars of Literature Academy was founded by the Jayaatu Khan (Emperor Wenzong) (r. 1328 – 29), who was passionate about the arts and literature.
It was situated in the centre of Dadu, in the west wing of the Xingshengdian Palace.
Wenzong founded the hall in 1328, and the era’s greatest calligraphers gathered here as well as an extensive collection of calligraphy.
Academicians employed at the Hall included the emperor’s tutor, Yu Ji (1272 – 1348), and the imperial calligraphy consultant Ke Jiuse (1290 – 1343). Both men were great calligraphers in their own right.
Ke Jiusi (1290 – 1343)
The official Ke Jiusi (柯九思) was a calligrapher, painter, poet and art connoisseur.
He was so close to the emperor Wenzong, who he advised on political and artistic matters, that the latter gifted him a valuable work by Wang Xianzhi (344 – 386 AD).
Ke’s style was blunt and square but refined, not unlike the style of the famous Tang dynasty calligrapher Ouyang Xun (557 – 641 AD) who he studied and admired.
After he retired, he left the Yuan capital and lived in the south (in Wuxia, today’s Songjiang, Shanghai), where he continued practicing calligraphy and writing poems about his past.
Kangli Naonao (1295 – 1345)
Kangli Naonao (康里巎巎) was the longest serving member of The Hall of the Stars of Literature Academy.
He was from a Mongol Kangli tribe with roots in Central Asia and had a comprehensive mastery of Chinese culture.
He even tutored the Yuan Ukhaghatu Khan (also known as Emperor Shun) (r. 1333 – 68) on the Confucian classics.
He was well known for his mastery of cursive script, which he based on the cursive of Wang Xizhi.
However, he different from Wang’s (and Zhao Mengfu’s) style by using the centre-tipped way of holding the brush.
In this respect, his work was more like another influence of his, the Tang dynasty monk Huaisu (737 – 799 AD).
This high-wristed brushwork led to smooth strokes of even width (unlike the alternating width of Wang’s and Zhao’s, who held the brush at more angles).
Late Yuan dynasty (ca. 1333 – 1368)
Ukhaghatu Khan (or emperor Huizong of Yuan; birth name Toghön Temur) (r. 1333 – 1368) was the final and longest-serving Yuan emperor.
Despite the stability his rule should have brought, the dynasty began to experience existential challenges, including famines, natural disasters, and rebellions.
Despite this turmoil, new calligraphers continued to appear.
Rao Jie (ca. 1300 – 1367)
Rao Jie (饶介) was a calligrapher and poet who initially served as an official under the Mongols.
He associated with the The Hall of the Stars of Literature Academy, and Kangli Naonao, amongst others. And he developed an innovative and distinctive cursive script (which contained elements of draft-cursive).
Rao joined the Red Turban Rebellion in 1362 and was appointed an official soon after.
However, his career under the new dynasty was short-lived.
The Hongwu Emperor, despite claiming to restore Confucian values, was deeply suspicious of the educated elite.
He initiated brutal purges, executing officials, calligraphers, painters, and others, in the tens of thousands.
Rao Jie became an early victim and was executed in 1367.
Ni Zan (1301 – 1374)
Though much younger than Zhao Mengfu, and not an official, the highly eccentric Ni Zan (倪瓒) was acquainted with Zhao through artistic circles.
And like Zhao, Ni Zan was also a highly accomplished painter and poet.
Ni Zan was from a wealthy family and lived a life of luxury and devotion to calligraphy, painting, and poetry.
He inherited his family’s estate in his twenties, but by his late thirties, he had to give much of it away owing to heavy Mongol taxes.
Thereafter, he spent his years roaming around and living off his work. Though the circumstances of the second half of his life were less than ideal, he still managed to develop as a calligrapher.
Ni Zan’s distinct, sharp characters are perhaps somewhat of an idiosyncratic phenomenon.
However, during the Yuan, paintings first began to be written directly on. Chinese painting would become famous for this.
So, Ni’s calligraphy and painting style complimented one another well.